PPCME2 Lite:
A Brief Introduction to the Syntactic Annotation
System of the PPCME2
Ann Taylor
August 1999
Introduction
The PPCME2 parsing scheme uses a limited tree representation in the form of
labelled parentheses. All open parentheses have an associated label, either
a phrase label (NP, ADJP, etc.) or a word label (N, ADJ, etc.),
representing nodes in a tree. Word-level labels are provided for every
word, but phrasal labels are not included in every case in which a fully
labelled tree would require them. Intermediate levels of structure (N',
ADJ', etc.) are never represented explicitly. Thus the trees are quite
flat.
This approach has no theoretical import, but rather was adopted purely for
practical reasons. Some phrases were omitted because their boundaries are
too difficult to define. This is the case for VP, which, especially in
Early Middle English where the order of the verb and its complements is
still in flux (at least on the surface), cannot easily be included. Other
phrases, such as DP, were omitted because in our opinion, the cost of
including them outweighs their usefullness. Intermediate levels of
structure are omitted for both reasons. In no case should the lack of any
particular phrase label be taken as implying that we do or do not believe
that Middle English syntax failed to include such a phrase. The trees are
simply underspecified.
This introduction to our parsing scheme includes only a basic outline of
the general principles we followed in parsing and details on the most
common structures. All examples in the present document are made up and
given in Modern English so as to be maximally accessible. For complete
documentation of the system with Middle English examples, see the full documentation.
General parsing principles
-
PPCME structure is very flat. Most nodes are multiply branching. A typical
PPCME parse in tree form looks like this:
Note that:
-
IP (in this case, IP-MAT, a matrix IP) immediately dominates all verbs and sentence level
constituents; that
is, there are no intemediate I' levels or a VP.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(HVP has)
(BEN been)
(VAG meaning)
(IP-INF (TO to)
(VB go))
(PP (P for)
(NP (D a) (N week))))
-
In addition to verbs, a small number of other word-level constituents are
immediately dominated by IP. These are: particles (RP), sentential
conjunctions (CONJ) and single-word interjections (INTJ)
(IP-MAT (CONJ And) <--- sentential conjunction
(NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD looked)
(RP up) <--- particle
(NP-OB1 (NP-POS (NPR Jane) ($ 's))
(N number)))
(IP-MAT-SPE (INTJ Alas) <--- single-word interjection
(IP-MAT-PRN (VBD cried)
(NP-SBJ (NPR Mary)))
(NP-SBJ (PRO I))
(HVP have)
(VBD lost)
(NP-OB1 (PRO$ my) (NS glasses)))
-
Within phrasal constituents, the phrasal node immediately dominates the
head; there are no intermediate levels of structure (N', ADJ' etc.).
(NP (D the ) (N girl))
(PP (P in)
(NP (D the) (N spring)))
(ADJP (ADV very) (ADJ big))
-
Pre-head modifiers do not project phrasal nodes when they consist of a
single word, but do when they are multi-word. Because of the lack of
intermediate levels of structure, all modifiers appear as sisters of the
head.
(NP (D a) (ADJ big) (N cat))
(NP (D a)
(ADJP (ADV very) (ADJ big))
(N cat))
-
Post-head constituents project phrasal nodes in all cases. Like
pre-head modifiers, they are sisters to the head.
(IP-MAT (PP (P From)
(ADVP (ADV above)))
(MD shall)
(VB come)
(NP-SBJ (D +te) (N judge)
(ADJP (ADJ fierce) (CONJ and) (ADJ angry)))
(. ;))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO He))
(ADVP-TMP (ADV never))
(VBD found)
(NP-OB1 (D a) (N woman)
(ADJP (ADJ good))))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (D The) (N king))
(VBD gave)
(NP-OB2 (PRO him))
(NP-OB1 (D an) (N island)
(RRC (VAN forsaken)))) <--- RRC = reduced relative clause
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO$ Our) (N life)
(ADVP-LOC (ADV here)))
(BEP is)
(ADJP (ADV very) (ADJ comfortable)))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO She))
(VBD came)
(NP-TMP (D the) (ADJ fifth) (N day)
(ADVP-TMP (ADV+WARD afterward))))
- The PPCME labels for both form and function. In general, the basic
label indicates the form of the constituent (NP, PP, ADJP, etc.), while
additional labels (separated by a hyphen) indicate function (NP-SBJ =
subject, ADVP-TMP = temporal adverb, CP-REL = relative clause, etc.). Not
all constituents are marked for function; in most cases there is at most
one additional label, but there may be more (IP-INF-PRP = purpose
infinitive, IP-IMP-SPE = direct speech imperative, etc.).
-
Among sentence level constituents (i.e., all phrases immediately dominated
by IP), function is marked on all noun phrases (NP-SBJ = SUBJECT, NP-MSR =
MEASURE NP, etc.). Bare NPs are either complements of a non-verbal head
(e.g., a preposition), or part of a conjunction structure (see Section
CONJUNCTION).
(IP-MAT (NP-TMP (N Yesterday))
(NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD told)
(NP-OB2 (NPR Jane))
(CP-THT (C that)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO she))
(VBD studied)
(NP-MSR (QP (ADVR too) (Q much)))
(PP (P during)
(NP (D the) (N+N weekend))))))
-
Argument and adjunct PPs are not distinguished, nor are any PPs marked for
function.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD put)
(NP-OB1 (D the) (N book))
(PP (P on)
(NP (D the) (N table)))
(PP (P on)
(NP (NPR Saturday))))
-
Only locative, temporal and directional adverbs are marked for function;
others are unmarked.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(ADVP (ADV happily))
(VBD put)
(NP-OB1 (D the) (N book))
(ADVP-LOC (ADV there))
(ADVP-TMP (ADV+WARD afterward)))
-
All clauses are labelled by type. Matrix clauses are labelled IP-MAT; they
may be further characterized as direct speech (IP-MAT) or
parentheticals (IP-MAT-PRN) Other IP clauses have their own labels,
such as IP-IMP, imperative, IP-SMC, small clause, IP-INF,
infinitive, etc. All CPs also have extended labels to indicate type:
CP-THT, that clause, CP-ADV, adverbial clause, etc.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD forgot)
(IP-INF (TO to)
(VB tell)
(NP-OB2 (NPR Jane))
(CP-THT (C that)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO she))
(MD should)
(VB buy)
(NP-OB1 (N milk))))))
-
In cases where the attachment level of constituents is ambiguous or
difficult to determine, the default is always to attach high, rather than
to embed.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD saw)
(NP-OB1 (D the) (N man))
(PP (P with)
(NP (D the) (N telescope))))
Internal syntax of phrases
The internal syntax of all phrasal categories (excluding IP and CP) is
fundamentally similar.
- The phrasal node (NP, PP, ADJP, etc.) immediately dominates the head
category (N, P, ADJ, etc.); that is, there are no intermediate bar-levels
indicated.
- With two exceptions, heads always project a phrasal node. First,
certain heads, such as D (determiner), RP (particle) and all verbs, never
project a phrase. Second, single-word pre-head modifiers do not project a
phrasal node when that node is predictable on the basis of the head within
the PPCME2 schema.
- Complements and post-head modifiers always project a phrasal node,
whether they consist of a single word or not.
Thus in the PPCME2 schema, both modifiers and complements are sisters of
the head.
(XP (Y single_word_modifier) (X head)
(ZP complement_or_post_head_modifier))
(XP (W single_word_modifier) (Y single_word_modifier) (X head)
(ZP complement_or_post_head_modifier))
(XP (YP multi_word_modifier)
(X head)
(ZP complement_or_post_head_modifier))
(NP (D the) (NS girls)
(PP (P on)
(NP (D the) (N beach))))
(NP (Q many) (ADJ happy) (NS girls)
(PP (P on)
(NP (D the) (VAN overcrowded) (N beach))))
(NP (ADJP (ADJ happy) (CONJ and) (VAN excited))
(NS girls))
(NP (Q many)
(ADJP (ADV very) (ADJ happy))
(NS girls)
(PP (P on)
(NP (D the) (VAN overcrowded) (N beach))))
(NP (QP (ADV very) (Q many))
(ADJP (ADV very) (ADJ happy))
(NS girls)
(PP (P on)
(NP (D the) (N beach)
(PP (P with)
(NP (D the) (ADJ big) (NS dunes))))))
Other phrases have the same structure as NPs.
(ADJP (ADV very) (ADJ happy))
(ADJP (ADJ full)
(PP (P of)
(NP (N water))))
(PP (ADV especially)
(P on)
(NP (NPRS Saturdays)))
(PP (ADV right)
(P up)
(NP (D the) (N street)))
(ADVP (ADV very) (ADV slowly))
-
In general the head of a phrase will be overt and match the category of the
phrase level. In certian cases, however, there is no matching head. In some
cases this is because the head is actually empty (by elision, etc.), which we
do not indicate; in other cases, it may be an artifact of the PPCME schema
in which some words receive a more specific label than simply N, ADJ,
etc. For example, pronouns are labelled PRO, but act as heads of
NPs. Most instances of the word "one" are labelled ONE and in some
cases this word may be the head of the constituent. Thus, the lack of a
word-level constituent that matches the phrase in category indicates either
(1) the head has been elided; or (2) the head has a more specific label
than its general category label.
Most cases of the latter are found in NPs and ADJPs. The most common types
of correspondences are the following:
- nominal elements not labelled N (NS, etc.)
PRO, EX, MAN, OTHERS, ?PRO$, ?ONE, ?OTHER, ?D, ?Q (QR, etc.)
- adjectival elements not labelled ADJ (ADJS, etc.)
VAN, VAG, (HAN, HAG, etc.), SUCH, QR, ?ONE, ?OTHER
As indicated by the question marked elements in the above lists, it is not
always clear in some cases whether the word is the head or the head is
elided. It is mainly for this reason that we do not make this distinction
for these words.
The most common elision case is of the NPs containing only an adjective
or, more commonly, a determiner and adjective.
(IP-MAT (IP-MAT-1 (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD gave)
(NP-OB2 (NPR Jane))
(NP-OB1 (D a) (ADJ red) (N ribbon)))
(CONJP (CONJ and)
(IP-MAT=1 (NP-OB2 (NPR Lucy))
(NP-OB1 (D a) (ADJ blue))))) <--- elided head noun
Sentence constituents
This section discusses the constituents that occur immediately dominated by
IP (i.e., at sentence level).
Word-level constituents
The following word classes are or may be immediately dominated by IP: all
verbs and modals, particles (RP and FP), conjunctions (CONJ) and
interjections (INTJ).
Verbs and modals
Verbs and modals are always dominated by IP.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(MD will)
(VB want)
(IP-INF (TO to)
(VB see)
(NP-OB1 (D that) (N movie))
(ADVP (ADV too))))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(HVP has)
(BEN been)
(VAG buying)
(NP-OB1 (NS groceries))
(ADVP-LOC (ADV there))
(PP (P for)
(NP (NS years))))
Adverbial particles (RP)
Adverbials particles (RP) generally are dominated by IP, but they can
appear in other configurations as well, the most common being as specifiers
of PP.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD woke)
(RP up)
(ADVP-TMP (ADV late))
(NP-TMP (D this) (N morning)))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD walked)
(PP (RP up) (P to)
(NP (D the) (N beach))))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (D The) (N raising) (RP up)
(PP (P of)
(NP (D the) (NS walls))))
(VBD took)
(NP-MSR (NUM three) (NS days)))
Focus particles (FP)
Focus particles when they focus the verb are dominated by IP.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(FP even)
(VBP likes)
(NP-OB1 (ADJ green) (N jelly) (NS beans)))
Sentential conjunctions (CONJ)
Sentential conjunctions are immediately dominated by IP. For other types of
conjunction, see Section CONJUNCTION.
(IP-MAT (CONJ And)
(NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD wanted)
(NP-ACC (QR more)))
(IP-MAT (CONJ But)
(NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD left)
(ADVP-TMP (ADV early)))
Single-word interjections (INTJ)
Finally, single word interjections are immediately dominated by IP. For
interjections phrases (INTJP), see section INTERJECTION PHRASES.
(IP-MAT-SPE (INTJ Damn)
(NP-SBJ (D this))
(BEP is)
(ADJP (ADVR too) (ADJ small))
(IP-MAT-PRN (VBD said)
(NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))))
Phrasal constituents
All other constituents of the IP are always treated as phrasal.
Noun phrases (NP)
Every noun phrase at sentence level is labelled for function. Bare NP
labels only occur within non-clausal constituents (e.g., as the complements
of prepositions, in conjunction structures, etc.)
Subjects (NP-SBJ)
Subjects are labelled NP-SBJ. Most clause types are required
to have a subject. The exceptions are: imperatives (see Section IMPERATIVES), non-ECM infinitives (see Section
INFINITIVES and participial clauses (see Section
PARTICIPIAL CLAUSES). In any other type of
clause, if the subject is missing, an empty subject is supplied.
There are four types of empty subjects: (1) subjects elided under
conjunction (NP-SBJ *con*); (2) arbitrary PRO subject in ECM
infinitives (NP-SBJ *arb*); (3) empty expletive subjects
(NP-SBJ *exp*); and (4) missing subjects that do not fall into any
of the other categories (NP-SBJ *pro*). Empty expletives are used
much more widely in Middle English than in Modern English; for the details
on the environments in which an empty expletive subject is added, see EMPTY EXPLETIVE SUBJECTS in the full
documentation. The last category is a "kitchen sink" category that
includes a number of different kinds of cases including, but not limited
to, potential cases of "small pro", i.e., pro-drop. For details and
examples, see OTHER EMPTY SUBJECTS in
the full documentation.
For examples of overt subjects, see examples throughout.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD bought)
(NP-OB1 (D a) (N cat)))
(IP-MAT (CONJ and)
(NP-SBJ *con*) <--- subject elided under conjunction
(VBD took)
(NP-OB1 (PRO it))
(NP-DIR (N home)))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD helped)
(IP-INF (NP-SBJ *arb*) <--- an "arbitrary pro" subject is added in
(VB buy) ECM cases without a specified subject
(NP-OB1 (D the) (N car))))
(IP-MAT (PP (P On)
(NP (D the) (N corner)))
(NP-SBJ-1 *exp*) <--- empty expletive in locative context
(BEP is)
(NP-1 (D a) (N bank)))
(IP-MAT (NP-OB2 (PRO me))
(NP-SBJ-1 *exp*) <--- empty expletive in impersonal context
(VBP thinketh)
(CP-THT-1 (C that)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(BEP is)
(ADJP (ADJ late)))))
Objects (NP-OB1, NP-OB2)
The PPCME2 distinguishes two objects, labelled NP-OB1 and
NP-OB2. These correspond roughly, but not exactly, to accusitive and
dative/genitive objects, or to direct and indirect objects. For details on
how the objects are distinguished, see FIRST OBJECT AND SECOND
OBJECT in the full documentation.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD gave)
(NP-OB2 (NPR Jane))
(NP-OB1 (D a) (N present)))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD bought)
(NP-OB2 (NPR Jane)) <--- benefactives are labelled NP-OB2
(NP-OB1 (D a) (N present)))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD told)
(NP-OB2 (NPR Jane))
(IP-INF (TO to)
(VB buy)
(NP-OB1 (NS vegetables))))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD encouraged)
(NP-OB1 (NPR Jane))
(IP-INF (TO to)
(VB buy)
(NP-OB1 (NS vegetables))))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ-1 (PRO It))
(VBP behooves)
(NP-OB2 (NPR Mary)) <--- objects of impersonal verbs are NP-OB2
(IP-INF-1 (TO to)
(BE be)
(ADJP (QR more) (ADJ careful))))
Possessive and genitive noun phrases (NP-POS, NP-COM)
Multi-word possessive NPs are labelled NP-POS. For single
word possessives the phrasal level is not indicated, following general
principles (cf. Section GENERAL PARSING
PRINCIPLES). In addition, the label NP-COM is used to
indicate relations between nouns or noun phrases where no preposition
or other overt indication of the relationship is present. Note that
in Middle English, the possessive is generally indicated by -S rather
than 'S. When 'S or HIS is used as the possessive morpheme, it is
separated from the head word and labelled $.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR$ Marys) (N cat))
(VBD ran)
(ADVP-DIR (ADV away)))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NP-POS (NPR Mary) ($ 's))
(N cat))
(VBD ran)
(ADVP-DIR (ADV away)))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NP-POS (NPR Mary) ($ his))
(N cat))
(VBD ran)
(ADVP-DIR (ADV away)))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NP-POS (D the) (ADJ tall) (N$ girls))
(N mother))
(BEP is)
(ADJP (ADV very) (ADJ smart)))
Most non-possessive uses of NP-COM are not possible in Modern
English. The most common one is bare NP complements of HALF, MANNER, and
SIDE.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Arthur))
(VBD ruled)
(PP (P on)
(NP (D this) (N half)
(NP-COM (NPR Humber)))))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NUM Two) (N manner)
(NP-COM (NS men)))
(BEP are)
(PP (P in)
(NP (ADJ holy) (NPR Church))))
Reflexives (NP-RFL)
Only inherent reflexives are given the reflexive NP label
NP-RFL. Reflexive objects of transitive verbs (Mary washed
herself) are not labelled as reflexive, but just as regular
objects (NP-OB1 or NP-OB2). Emphatic reflexives (Mary wrote the
book herself) are labelled as appositives (see Section APPOSITIVES AND
PARENTHETICALS). Most of these inherent reflexive uses are no
longer current in Modern English.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD went)
(NP-RFL (PRO her))
(PP (P to)
(NP (N church))))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD prayed)
(NP-RFL (PRO her))
(PP (P to)
(NP (NPR God))))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD washed)
(NP-OB1 (PRO+N herself))) <--- reflexive object of transitive verb
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary)
(NP-PRN (PRO+N herself))) <--- emphatic reflexive
(VBD wrote)
(NP-OB1 (D the) (N book)))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary)
(NP-PRN *ICH*-1))
(VBD wrote)
(NP-OB1 (D the) (N book))
(NP-PRN-1 (PRO+N herself))) <--- emphatic reflexive
Vocative noun phrases (NP-VOC)
Vocatives are labelled NP-VOC.
(IP-IMP-SPE (VBI Come)
(RP on)
(NP-VOC (NPR Mary))
(IP-MAT-PRN (VBD shouted)
(NP-SBJ (NPR Jane))))
Left-dislocated noun phrases (NP-LFD)
Left-dislocated NPs are labelled NP-LFD. The resumptive element has
-RSP as its last element. There is no coindexing as there is only
ever one dislocated-resumptive pair per sentence. The connection between
the two may be quite loose.
(IP-MAT (NP-LFD (NPR Mary))
(NP-SBJ-RSP (PRO she))
(ADVP-TMP (ADV always))
(VBP wins))
(IP-IMP (NP-LFD (PRO he)
(CP-REL (WNP-1 (WPRO who))
(C 0)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(HVP has)
(NP-OB1 (NS ears)))))
(VBI let)
(IP-INF (NP-SBJ-RSP (PRO him))
(VB hear)))
Measure noun phrases (NP-MSR)
Only NP measure phrases are labelled as such. PP measure phrases (
during the night, etc.), in keeping with our policy not to mark
function on PPs, are not indicated. Quantifiers and quantifier phrases
indicating measure are labelled as NPs. The internal structure of some
measure phrases is fairly complex. For details, see MEASURE PHRASES in the full
documentation.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBP loves)
(NP-OB1 (PRO$ her) (NS cats))
(NP-MSR (QP (ADV very) (Q much))))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD worked)
(NP-MSR (Q all) (N night)))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD walked)
(NP-MSR (NUM ten) (NS miles))
(PP (P during)
(NP (D the) (N night))))
Directional noun phrases (NP-DIR)
NPs indicating direction are labelled NP-DIR. These are not very
common, the only frequent ones being HOME and phrases including WAY.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD went)
(NP-DIR (N home))
(PP (P at)
(NP (N noon))))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD went)
(NP-DIR (D that) (N way))
(IP-INF-PRP (TO to)
(VB avoid)
(NP-OB1 (D the) (N traffic))))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD went)
(NP-DIR (N south))
(IP-INF-PRP (TO to)
(VB enjoy)
(NP-OB1 (D the) (N sun))))
Adverbial noun phrases (NP-ADV)
The label NP-ADV is used for a number of cases (see Section NP ADVERBS in the full documentation for
an exhaustive list). Some common ones are exemplified here.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO They))
(VBD bound)
(NP-OB1 (PRO her))
(NP-ADV (N hand) (CONJ and) (N foot)))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(DOD did)
(NP-OB1 (PRO it))
(NP-ADV (PRO$ her) (N way)))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO They) (Q all))
(VBD came)
(RP in)
(NP-ADV (NP (ONE one))
(PP (P at)
(NP (D a) (N time)))))
(IP-MAT (NP-ADV (CP-FRL (WNP-1 (WPRO+ADV Whatever))
(C 0)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VBP happens))))
(NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(MD will)
(NEG not)
(VB give)
(RP up))
Noun phrase secondary predicates (NP-SPR)
NP secondary predicates are labelled NP-SPR. The most common type can
be paraphrased with AS. Adjectival secondary predicates are also indicated;
see Section ADJECTIVE PHRASES.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD died)
(NP-SPR (D a) (N martyr)))
Datives of possession (NP-DOP)
In early texts the dative of possession occassionally appears. The clear
cases always immediately precede a PP, and are represented as filling the
specPP position (i.e., precede the head). Only datives which can not be
interpreted in any other way are labelled NP-DOP; other potential
cases are simply labelled as second object NP-OB2.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO He))
(VBP falls)
(PP (NP-DOP (D the) (NPR devil)) <--- ``he falls into the devil's hand''
(P into)
(NP (N hand))))
Adjunct Noun phrases (NP-ADT)
The label NP-ADT is used in any case where none of the labels
given above applies. It is not a unified category. For some examples of the
kinds of NPs labelled this way, see Section NON-ARGUMENT NP in the full
documentation.
Adjective phrases (ADJP)
An ADJP at sentence level without any further specification is the
primary predicate. Two other types of ADJPs are distinguished: secondary
adjectival predicates ADJP-SPR and locative adjectives
ADJP-LOC. A locative ADJP may also be the primary predicate.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(BEP is)
(ADJP (ADV very) (ADJ intelligent)))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD arrived)
(ADJP-SPR (ADJ alone)))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD sat)
(ADJP-LOC (ADJ near)
(NP (NPR Jane))
(PP (P at)
(NP (N lunch)))))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Washington))
(BEP is)
(ADJP-LOC (ADJ far)
(PP (P from)
(NP (NPR Houston)))))
Adverb phrases (ADVP)
Locative, temporal and directional adverbs are labelled for function; all
others (mostly manner and sentential adverbs) are left bare.
(IP-MAT (CONJ And)
(ADVP (ADV so))
(ADVP-TMP (ADV+WARD afterwards))
(NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(BED was)
(ADJP (ADJ sorry)
(PP (P for)
(NP (PRO$ her) (NS actions)))))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD lived)
(ADVP-LOC (ADV there))
(ADVP (ADV happily))
(PP (P for)
(NP (NUM ten) (NS years))))
(IP-MAT (ADVP (ADV again))
(NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD went)
(ADVP-DIR (ADV thither)))
Prepositional phrases (PP)
Argument and adjunct PPs are not distinguished because of the difficulty of
making these judgements consistently. PPs are not labelled for function.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD went)
(PP (P to) <--- argument PP
(NP (NPR London)))
(PP (P on) <--- adjunct PP
(NP (NPR Saturday))))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD put)
(NP-OB1 (D the) (N book))
(PP (P on)) <--- argument PP
(NP (D the) (N table))
(PP (P for) <--- adjunct PP
(NP (NPR Jane))))
Interjection phrases (INTJP)
The INTJP label is used in two cases:
- for words used as interjections which are not labelled
INTJ
- for interjections of more than a single word.
In general the INTJ label is used only for words which cannot
easily be labelled in any other way. Thus ALAS is always labelled
INTJ but, GOD is labelled NPR, even when it is used
as an interjection. In the latter case, however, it projects an INTJP
phrasal label. Multi-word interjections, whether the parts are
labelled INTJ or not, are INTJPs. See section SINGLE-WORD INTERJECTIONS for interjections not
dominated by INTJP.
(IP-MAT (INTJP (NPR God))
(NP-SBJ (D that))
(BED was)
(NP-OB1 (D a) (ADJ long) (N lecture)))
(INTJP (INTJ Lo)
(CP-QUE (WADVP-1 (WADV how))
(C 0)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (D the) (ADJ mighty))
(HVP have)
(VBN fallen))))
(IP-MAT (INTJP (INTJ Alas) (CONJ and) (INTJ welladay))
(NP-SBJ (PRO$ my) (N cat))
(HVP has)
(VBN run)
(ADVP-DIR (ADV away)))
Punctuation
There are basically two types of punctuation: final and non-final. Any
non-final punctuation is tagged with a comma, while all final punctuation
is tagged with a period. Final in this context means sentence-final as
defined by PPCME.
Non-linguistic labels
The following non-linguistic labels are used to distinguish parts of the text:
quotation phrase QTP
Latin sequences LATIN (or other language FRENCH, HEBREW, etc.)
references REF
meta-text material CODE
Quotation phrase (QTP)
The label QTP is used to enclose non-sentential sequences
that are quoted, either as direct speech or when "mentioned"
rather than "used". Speech made up of a full IP-SPE or CP-SPE is
indicated with the extended label -SPE.
(CP-QUE-SPE (IP-SUB-SPE (MD Shall)
(NP-SBJ (PRO we))
(VB go)
(PP (P to)
(NP (D the) (N park))))
(, ?)
(IP-MAT-PRN (VBD asked)
(NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))))
(QTP (INTJ No)
(IP-MAT-PRN (VBD answered)
(NP-SBJ (NPR Jane)))
(PP (P to)
(NP (D the) (N beach))))
(CP-QUE-SPE (WADVP-1 (WADV Why))
(IP-SUB-SPE (ADVP *T*-1)
(DOD did)
(NP-SBJ (PRO you))
(DO do)
(NP-OB1 (PRO it))
(, ?)
(IP-MAT-PRN (VBD asked)
(NP-SBJ (NPR (Mary))))))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Jane))
(VBD answered)
(ADVP (ADV shortly))
(QTP (NP (Q no) (N reason))))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Esther))
(VBP means)
(" ")
(QTP (VAN hidden))
(" ")
(PP (P in)
(NP (NPR English))))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Saint) (NPR Augustine))
(VBD said)
(QTP (LATIN (FW Caveat) (FW emptor))))
Latin and other foreign language sequences (LATIN)
Foreign language sequences of more than a single word are labelled
with the name of the language. This is overwhelmingly LATIN,
but FRENCH and HEBREW also occur occasionally. A
unknown foreign language sequence is labelled LATIN. Direct
speech is additionally labelled QTP (see Section QUOTATION PHRASE). Latin (or other foreign language)
words or phrases clearly functioning in some role in the sentence
(subject, object, etc.) are additionally labelled with their function.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (D The) (ADJ third))
(BEP is)
(NP-OB1 (LATIN (FW cordis) (FW grauitas)))
(. .))
(IP-MAT (CONJ but)
(PP (P in)
(NP (NPR Latin)))
(NP-SBJ (PRO it))
(VBP highte)
(NP-OB1 (LATIN (FW Centesimus) (FW fructus)))
(. .))
References (REF)
If the source of a passage or quotation is given without any explicit
relationship to the rest of the text, it is labelled REF. When
possible these are separated from the text (i.e., if they occur at the
beginning or end of the relevant portion of text).
(REF (LATIN (FW Augustinus)
(, ,)
(FW De) (FW Civitate) (FW libro) (FW nono))
(. .))
(IP-MAT (CONJ and)
(PP (ADV+P therfore))
(VBP seith)
(NP-SBJ (NPR Seint) (NPR Paul))
(REF (LATIN (FW Ad) (FW Ephesios) (FW quinto))) <--- ``in Ephesians 5''
(, ,)
(CP-THT (C that)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (D an) (ADJ avaricious) (N man))
(BEP is)
(PP (P in)
(NP (D the) (N thraldom)
(PP (P of)
(NP (N ydolatrie)))))))
(. .))
Meta-textual material (CODE)
Any material included in the file that is not part of the ``text'' such as
page numbers, some headers, comments, etc. are labelled CODE. Note that in
searching such material is automatically omitted.
Conjunction
Phrasal conjunction
The basic form of conjunction is as follows:
(XP (XP first_conjunct)
(CONJP (CONJ conjunction)
(YP second_conjunct)))
The conjunction phrase (CONJP) is sister to the first conjunct, while
the head of the CONJP (the conjunction) takes the second conjunct as a
complement. This applies to the conjunction of all phrasal categories
except IP, which is a special case (see Section IP CONJUNCTION). Conjunction of word-level
categories (e.g., verbs) and cases with potential shared modifiers are
also treated slightly differently. See further below.
(NP (NP (D the) (N cat))
(CONJP (CONJ and)
(NP (D the) (N dog))))
(ADJP (ADJP (ADV very) (ADJ happy))
(CONJP (CONJ or)
(ADJP (ADV very) (ADJ sad)))))
(PP (PP (P on)
(NP (N land)))
(CONJP (CONJ or)
(PP (P on)
(NP (N sea)))))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD said)
(CP-THT (CP-THT (C that)
(IP-SUB-(NP-SBJ (NPR Jane))
(MD should)
(VB go)
(PP (P to)
(NP (D the) (N store)))))
(CONJP (CONJ and)
(CP-THT (C that)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO she))
(MD should)
(VB demand)
(NP-OB1 (PRO$ her) (N money))
(ADVP (ADV back)))))))
Word-level conjunction
If both conjuncts are single words, all internal structure is omitted. The
conjunction of word-level categories (e.g. verbs) is similar, except that
the dominating category is also word-level.
(NP (NS cats) (CONJ and) (NS dogs))
(ADJP (ADJ happy) (CONJ and) (ADJ sad))
(ADVP (ADV quickly) (CONJ or) (ADV slowly))
(VBP (VBP sings) (CONJ and) (VBP dances))
(MD (MD could) (CONJ or) (MD would))
(RP (RP up) (CONJ and) (RP down))
Conjunction with potentially shared modifiers
In cases where the first conjunct includes modifiers which may or may
not also apply to the second conjunct ( old women and men), and
thus the phrase level of the second conjunct is not clear, the
following structure is used where YX is NX, ADJX
or ADVX. Note that in this case the CONJP is sister to the
head of the first conjunct rather than to the first conjunct itself.
(XP (X first_conjunct)
(CONJP (CONJ conjunction)
(YX second_conjunct)))
(NP (ADJ old) (NS women)
(CONJP (CONJ and)
(NX (NS men))))
(ADJP (ADV very) (ADJ gloomy)
(CONJP (CONJ and)
(ADJX (ADJ sad))))
(ADVP (ADV very) (ADV slowly)
(CONJP (CONJ and)
(ADVX (ADV carefully))))
IP Conjunction
The conjunction of IPs is a special case. Each clause containing a tensed
verb is treated as a separate token even if the clauses are conjoined. In
these cases the conjunction itself is just treated as a sentence
constituent, rather than heading a CONJP.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD came)
(NP-DIR (N home)))
(IP-MAT (CONJ and)
(NP-SBJ *con*)
(VBD put)
(NP-OB1 (PRO$ her) (NS feet))
(RP up))
IPs are conjoined like other phrases
- when the tensed verb of the second conjunct has been elided
- when they are complements (i.e, in subordinate clauses)
In the first case the clauses are coindexed using
equal-sign coindexing, which indicates that the clause with the equal-sign
index is incomplete but may be reconstructed on the basis of the coindexed
clause.
(IP-MAT (IP-MAT-1 (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(BED was)
(VAG eating)
(NP-OB1 (N dinner)))
(CONJP (CONJ and)
(IP-MAT=1 (VAG reading)
(NP-OB1 (D a) (N book)))))
(IP-MAT (IP-MAT-1 (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(MD will)
(VB buy)
(NP-OB1 (NS groceries)))
(CONJP (CONJ and)
(IP-MAT=1 (VB cook) <--- note that no empty categories are
(NP-OB1 (N dinner)) added in clauses with an equal-sign
(PP (P after) index
(NP (N work))))))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD said)
(CP-THT (C that)
(IP-SUB (IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (NPR Jane))
(VBD bought)
(NP-OB1 (NS groceries)))
(CONJP (CONJ and)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ *con*) <--- when only the subject is elided
(VBD cooked) under conjunction, an empty
(NP-OB1 (N dinner))))))) subject is added
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD said)
(CP-THT (C that)
(IP-SUB (IP-1 (NP-SBJ (NPR Jane))
(MD will)
(VB buy)
(NP-OB1 (NS groceries)))
(CONJP (CONJ and)
(IP=1 (VB cook)
(NP-OB1 (N dinner)))))))
Empty categories
The following empty catgories are used in the PPCME2.
(NP-SBJ *con*) subject elided under conjunction
(NP-SBJ *exp*) empty expletive subject
(NP-SBJ *pro*) "small pro" subject
(NP-SBJ *arb*) arbitrary PRO subject in ECM infinitives
(XP *T*) wh- trace (XP = NP, ADJP, or ADVP)
(XP *ICH*) non-wh trace (XP = any phrase)
(XP *) - without an index indicates elided or understood constituent
- with an index indicates coreference of empty position with
a constituent in another clause
Empty subjects
Four types of empty subjects are distinguished. For details, see Section SUBJECTS above, or for more detail, SUBJECTS in the full documentation.
Wh-traces (XP *T*)
For details on wh-traces, see under the specific clause-types in which they
occur.
Non-wh traces (XP *ICH*) (XP *)
Two types of non-wh traces are indicated: (1) traces of A'-bar
movement ((XP *ICH*) where XP is any label); and (2) a
limited number of traces of A-movement ((XP *) with an
index, where XP is any category).
A'-bar movement is included in any case in which it has obviously
occurred. In practice this generally means in any case in which one
constituent has been moved out of another constituent, as, for example, an
extraposed relative clause or degree clause leaves an A'-bar trace inside
its antecedent. Cases in which sentence-level constituents may have been
reordered (e.g., topicalization) are not indicated.
(IP-MAT (ADJP (ADVR So) (ADJ happy) <--- topicalization not indicated
(CP-DEG *ICH*-1)) <--- extraposition of degree clause
(BED was) indicated
(NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(CP-DEG-1 (C that)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO she))
(VBD danced)
(NP-OB1 (D a) (N jig)))))
A-bar movement is also only indicated in cases in which the moved element
has been extracted from another constituent. Thus passivization is
indicated if the passivized NP is extracted from an infinitive, small
clause or PP, but not if it is simply passivized from object position.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ-1 (PRO She))
(BED was)
(VAN called)
(IP-SMC (NP-SBJ *-1)
(NP-OB1 (NPR Mary)))
(PP (P after)
(NP (PRO$ her) (N grandmother))))
For more details, see TRACES in the full
documentation.
Generic empty category (XP *)
The generic empty category (XP *) (where XP is any label) is used
for various other cases which do not fall into any of those listed
above. For details, see A
GENERIC EMPTY CATEGORY in the full documentation.
The syntax of the matrix clauses
A matrix clause is labelled IP and includes one matrix
verb. Because the system does not include a VP level, the IP is very
flat (see Section GENERAL PARSING PRINCIPLES;
all matrix constituents are represented at the same level as the verb
and its auxiliaries if present.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBP likes)
(NP-OB1 (NS cats)))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(BEP is)
(VAG buying)
(NP-OB1 (D a) (N cat)))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD bought)
(NP-OB1 (D a) (N cat))
(PP (P on)
(NP (NPR Tuesday))))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(MD might)
(HV have)
(VBN bought)
(NP-OB1 (D a) (N cat))
(PP (P on)
(NP (NPR Tuesday))))
Cases of (potential) VP conjunction ( Mary bought a cat and took it
home) are treated as two separate IPs with an elided subject, represented
by (NP-SBJ *con*) in the second IP.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD bought)
(NP-OB1 (D a) (N cat)))
(IP-MAT (CONJ and)
(NP-SBJ *con*)
(VBD took)
(NP-OB1 (PRO it))
(NP-DIR (N home)))
Conjoined intransitive verbs ( Mary sang and danced at the party) or
conjoined transitive verbs which share a single object ( Mary wrote and
directed the film) are conjoined at the word level and included in the
same IP rather than being separated.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD (VBD sang) (CONJ and) (VBD danced))
(PP (P at)
(NP (D the) (N party))))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD (VBD wrote) (CONJ and) (VBD directed))
(NP-OB1 (D the) (N film)))
Imperatives (IP-IMP)
Imperative clauses are labelled IP-IMP. They contain a subject only
if there is an overt subject in the sentence.
(IP-IMP (VBI hurry)
(RP up))
(IP-IMP (VBI gather)
(NP-SBJ (PRO ye))
(NP-OB1 (N+NS rosebuds))
(PP (P while)
(CP-ADV (C 0)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO ye))
(MD may)
(VB *)))))
Direct speech (-SPE)
IPs and CPs are additionally labelled with the tag -SPE when they are
direct speech. Other phrases in direct speech are labelled QTP; see
Section QUOTATION PHRASE.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD said)
(IP-MAT-SPE (NP-SBJ (PRO I))
(VBP want)
(NP-OB1 (N cake))))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD said)
(CP-QUE-SPE (WNP-1 (WPRO what))
(IP-SUB-SPE (NP-OB1 *T*-1)
(BEP is)
(NP-SBJ (D the) (N matter))
(NP-VOC (NPR Jane))))
(. ?))
Appositives and parentheticals (-PRN)
The label -PRN is added to any constituent acting as an appositive
or parenthetical. Some common types are appositives on NPs, explanatory
sentences (that is..., that is to say...), speech parentheticals
(he said, quoth she, etc.), and emphatic reflexives (see Section REFLEXIVES for the latter). For more details on
other types, see APPOSITIVE OR
PARENTHETICAL in the full documentation.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary)
(NP-PRN (NPR$ Janes) (N sister)))
(VBD bought)
(NP-OB1 (D a) (N car)))
(NP (D this) (N virtue)
(, ,)
(IP-MAT-PRN (NP-SBJ (D that))
(BEP is)
(IP-INF (TO to)
(VB say)
(NP-OB1 (N maidenhood) (CONJ or) (N chastity)))))
(IP-IMP-SPE (VBI Come)
(RP on)
(IP-MAT-PRN (VBD cried)
(NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))))
The syntax of the subordinate clauses
Subordinate clauses which are headed by a complementizer (whether
overt or not) are labelled CP. Clauses in which the verb is
standardly assumed to have moved to the C position (direct questions,
yes/no questions, V1 conditionals) are also labelled CP, although in
the PPCME schema they lack a labelled C position and the movement of
the verb to this position is not indicated. Clauses without a
complementizer position are labelled IP. All clauses are
further labelled for function (relative clause, adverbial clause,
infinitive, small clause, etc.).
IP subordinate clauses
Subordinate clauses labelled as IPs are the following:
complement infinitive IP-INF
purpose infinitive IP-INF-PRP
adjunct infinitive IP-INF-ADT
small clause IP-SMC
participial clause IP-PPL
absolute IP-ABS
Infinitives (IP-INF)
The internal structure of an infinitive includes necessarily only the
verb. It may also include an auxiliary TO or FOR TO and, following an
ECM verb, a subject position. The controlled PRO subject position in
regular infinitives is not represented. Complement infinitives are
labelled IP-INF, purpose infinitives IP-INF-PRP
and other adjunct infinitives IP-INF-ADT.
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD wanted)
(IP-INF (TO to)
(VB go)
(PP (P to)
(NP (NPR Paris)))))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD bought)
(NP-OB1 (D the) (N car))
(IP-INF-PRP (TO to)
(VB commute)
(PP (P to)
(NP (N work)))))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD helped) <--- ECM verb
(IP-INF (NP-SBJ (NPR Jane))
(VB buy)
(NP-OB1 (D a) (N car))))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD helped)
(IP-INF (NP-SBJ *arb*) <--- an "arbitrary pro" subject is added in
(VB buy) ECM cases without a specified subject
(NP-OB1 (D the) (N car))))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(DOD did)
(NP-OB1 (N wrong))
(IP-INF-ADT (TO to)
(VB steal)
(NP-OB1 (D the) (N car))))
Small clauses (IP-SMC)
Small clauses include only a subject and a predicate. Only small clauses in
which the predicate is nominal or adjectival are represented as such.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBP considers)
(IP-SMC (NP-SBJ (NPR Jane))
(NP-OB1 (D a) (N friend)))) <--- nominal predicate
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBP considers)
(IP-SMC (NP-SBJ (NPR Jane))
(ADJP (ADJ friendly)))) <--- adjectival predicate
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBP considers)
(IP-SMC (NP-SBJ (D the) (N battle))
(VAN lost))) <--- adjectival participle predicate
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (N People))
(VBP call)
(IP-SMC (NP-SBJ (PRO her))
(NP-OB1 (NPR Mary))))
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO She))
(BEP is)
(VAN called)
(IP-SMC (NP-SBJ *-1) <--- passivization of subject of small clause
(NP-OB1 (NPR Mary))))
Participial clauses (IP-PPL)
Participial clauses are headed by a participle, present or past, and have a
controlled PRO subject (not represented in our system). Participial clauses
with an overt subject are treated as absolutes (see Section
ABSOLUTE CLAUSES).
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD ran)
(PP (P down)
(NP (D the) (N street)))
(IP-PPL (VAG shouting)
(IP-IMP-SPE (VBI Charge)))
(. !))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD saw)
(NP-OB1 (NPR Jane))
(IP-PPL (VAG sitting)
(PP (P under)
(NP (D a) (N tree)))))
(IP-MAT (PP (P On)
(IP-PPL (VAG looking)
(PP (RP up) (P from)
(NP (PRO$ her) (N work)))))
(NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD saw)
(NP-OB1 (NPR Jane)))
(IP-MAT (IP-PPL (VAN lost)
(PP (P in)
(NP (N thought))))
(NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD missed)
(NP-OB1 (PRO$ her) (N bus) (N stop)))
Absolute clauses (IP-ABS)
Absolutes are similar to participials but include an overt subject.
(IP-MAT (IP-ABS (NP-SBJ (NPR Jane))
(VAG having)
(VBN fallen)
(PP (P in)
(NP (D the) (ADJ third) (N lap))))
(NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(ADVP (ADV easily))
(VBD won)
(NP-OB1 (D the) (N race)))
(IP-MAT (PP (P With)
(IP-ABS (NP-SBJ (NPR Jane))
(BAG being)
(VAN disqualified)))
(NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(ADVP (ADV easily))
(VBD won)
(NP-OB1 (D the) (N race)))
Sentence fragments (FRAG)
The label FRAG is used when the ``sentence'' is grammatical, but
there is not enough structure present (for whatever reason) to construct
an IP. FRAG is not used for ungrammatical material.
(FRAG (ADVP-TMP (ADV Never))
(PP (P on)
(NP (D a) (NPR Sunday))))
CP subordinate clauses
CP subordinate clauses can be divided into types on the basis of their
internal syntax: those which are +WH and thus include a wh-position and
those which are -WH and do not.
+WH subordinate clauses
The following types of CPs always inlcude a wh-operator (WNP,
WADJP, WADVP, WPP) coindexed to a trace (*T*). The
wh-operator may be overt or empty. When empty, its content is
represented by 0 (i.e., zero). The trace is always the first
element in the IP complement, no matter what its function. All these
CPs except direct questions also include a complementizer position
(C), which may be overt or empty. When empty, it is
represented by 0.
wh-questions CP-QUE
relative clauses CP-REL
free relative clauses CP-FRL
clause-adjoined relative CP-CAR
comparative clauses CP-CMP
some adverbial clauses CP-ADV
tough-movement complements CP-TMC
it-cleft CP-CLF
Wh-questions (CP-QUE)
Both direct and indirect questions are labelled
CP-QUE. Indirect questions include both a wh-position
(technically specCP, represented implicitly in our system as the
position immediately preceding the head) and a complementizer
position, which may be empty. Direct question include only the
wh-position. The complementizer position in direct questions is
generally assumed to be filled by the tensed verb, an assumption we
accept but do not represent in our system; rather, no complementizer
position is included and the verb is first in the complement IP
(following the trace if there is one). This applies to all
constructions in which the verb is clearly in C, including yes/no
questions and verb-first conditionals (see Sections YES/NO QUESTIONS and ADVERBIAL CLAUSES).
Direct questions
(CP-QUE (WNP-1 (WPRO What))
(IP-SUB (NP-OB1 *T*-1)
(DOP does)
(NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VB want))
(. ?))
(CP-QUE (WADVP-1 (WADV Where))
(IP-SUB (ADVP-LOC *T*-1)
(DOD did)
(NP-SBJ (NPR Jane))
(VB go)
(. ?)))
Indirect questions
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBP knows)
(CP-QUE (WADVP-1 (WADV why))
(C 0)
(IP-SUB (ADVP *T*-1)
(NP-SBJ (NPR Jane))
(VBD bought)
(NP-OB1 (D the) (N car)))))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD asked)
(CP-QUE (WNP-1 (WD what) (N time))
(C 0)
(IP-SUB (NP-TMP *T*-1)
(NP-SBJ (NPR Jane))
(BED was)
(VAG coming))))
While in Modern English the complementizer position in indirect questions
is always empty, in Middle English it could be filled ( Mary asked what
time that Jane was coming).
Relative clauses (CP-REL)
Relative clauses have the same internal structure as indirect
questions (see Section WH-QUESTIONS). Relative clauses are treated
as post-modifiers of their antecedent. In simple cases the relative
clause will be a sister of the head noun of its antecedent. While in
Modern English it is usual for only the wh-operator or the
complementizer to be overt, but not both, in Middle English both
positions can be filled ( the cat which that Mary saw).
(NP (D the) (N cat)
(CP-REL (WNP-1 0)
(C that)
(IP-SUB (NP-OB1 *T*-1)
(NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD saw))))
(NP (NPR Mary)
(CP-REL (WNP-1 (WPRO who)) <--- restrictive and non-restrictive
(C 0) relatives are not distinguished
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VBD saw)
(NP-OB1 (D the) (N cat)))))
When relative clauses are associated with conjoined NPs ( the cats and
the dogs which play in the park), the attachment level of the relative can
be difficult to distinguish. The general rule in these cases (lacking
contextual evidence to the contrary) is that the relative clause attaches
as high as possible; that is, it applies to the whole NP rather than any
internal part of it. This is shown by making the relative a sister to the
other constituents of the highest NP. (For the treatment of conjunction,
see Section CONJUNCTION).
(NP (NP (D the) (NS cats))
(CONJP (CONJ and)
(NP (D the) (NS dogs)))
(CP-REL (WNP-1 (WPRO which))
(C 0)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VBP play)
(PP (P in)
(NP (D the) (N park))))))
Free relative clauses (CP-FRL)
The internal structure of free relatives is the same as that of
relatives and indirect questions (see Sections WH-QUESTIONS and RELATIVE
CLAUSES). Free relatives, however, have no antecedent. The
function of a free relative in the clause is indicated by enclosing it
within an otherwise empty set of appropriately labelled parens.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD bought)
(NP-OB1 (CP-FRL (WNP-1 (WPRO what))
(C 0)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO she))
(BED was)
(VAN told)
(IP-INF (NP-OB1 *T*-1)
(TO to)
(VB buy))))))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(ADVP-TMP (ADV always))
(VBP travels)
(ADVP-LOC (CP-FRL (WADVP-1 (WADV where) (ADV ever))
(C 0)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO she))
(VBP wants)
(IP-INF (ADVP-LOC *T*-1)
(TO)
(VB *))))))
Free relatives can sometimes be difficult to distinguish from indirect
questions. We distinguish them strictly as follows: If the verb can take an
indirect question (test with a why question), then the construction
is treated as a question; if not, it is treated as a free relative.
In Middle English, free relatives may be headed by THAT or THERE (or less
commonly in the early texts by other th-words). For details on how these
cases are treated, see NON-WH
FREE RELATIVES in the full documentation.
Clause-adjoined relative clauses (CP-CAR)
Clause-adjoined relatives are either continuative relatives which
refer back to the whole sentence ( Mary ate all the cake, which
made Jane angry), or wh-demonstratives, which although matrix
clauses, have the syntax of embedded wh-constructions ( The captain
sank the ship; the which captain was court-marshalled). Because
the antecedent of the wh-demonstrative is usually in the preceding
sentence, we adjoin these relatives to the preceding sentence.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD ate)
(NP-OB1 (Q all) (D the) (N cake))
(CP-CAR (WNP-1 (WPRO which))
(C 0)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VBD made)
(IP-SMC (NP-SBJ (NPR Jane))
(ADJP (ADJ angry))))))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (D The) (N captain))
(VBD sank)
(NP-OB1 (D the) (N ship))
(CP-CAR (WNP-1 (D the) (WD which) (N captain))
(C 0)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(BED was)
(VAN court-marshalled))))
Reduced relatives (RRC)
Reduced relative clauses are labelled but no effort is made to reconstruct
their internal structure.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (D The) (N girl)
(RRC (VAG wearing)
(NP-OB1 (D the) (ADJ red) (N hat))))
(VBD won)
(NP-OB1 (D the) (N race)))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (D The) (N candidate)
(RRC (VAN elected)
(PP (P by)
(N panel))))
(BED was)
(NP-OB1 (D a) (N crook)))
Reduced relatives can sometimes be difficult to distinguish from adjunct
participial clauses. See REDUCED
RELATIVES in the General Introduction
for details on how the two cases are distinguished.
Empty Operator CP (CP-EOP)
The label CP-EOP is used to label non-wh infinitival relatives and
purpose infinitives with a gap. These two cases are often difficult to
distinguish and so we do not attempt to do so (even when it is
possible). The antecedent of the trace receives the same index as the
trace, rather than being contained within it as in the case of other
relative clauses. Only infinitival relatives/purpose infinitives with an
object or object of preposition gap are treated this way (currently)
[POLICY UNDER REVIEW]. Thus Mary needs a plumber to fix the sink is
treated as a simple purpose infinitive and labelled IP-INF-PRP.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD bought)
(NP-OB1-1 (D a) (N wrench))
(CP-EOP (WNP-1 0)
(IP-INF (TO to)
(VB fix)
(NP-OB1 (D the) (N sink)
(PP (P with)
(NP *T*-1))))))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(HVP has)
(NP-OB1-1 (Q+N nothing))
(CP-EOP (WNP-1 0)
(IP-INF (NP-OB1 *T*-1)
(TO to)
(DO do))))
Comparative clauses (CP-CMP)
Comparative clauses have an empty operator co-indexed to a trace indicating
the function of what is being compared. They also have a complementizer
position. They appear as complements to the prepositions AS and THAN. Often
much of the comparative clause is elided. If the entire clause following
the subject has been elided ( Mary is taller than Jane), the
preposition is represented as taking an NP complement rather than a
clause. Infinitives may likewise appear as the complement to these
prepositions ( Mary likes to swim more than to ski). In other cases,
in order to make the structure clearer the missing parts have been added
(in Modern English) inside braces.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD ate)
(NP-OB1 (QP (ADVR as) (Q much))
(N cake))
(PP (P as)
(CP-CMP (WNP-1 0)
(C 0)
(IP-SUB (NP-OB1 *T*-1)
(NP-SBJ (NPR Jane))
(DOD did)
(VB *))))))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO She))
(MD ought)
(ADVP (ADV rather)
(PP *ICH*-1))
(TO to)
(BE be)
(VAN praised)
(PP-1 (P than)
(CP-CMP (WADVP-2 0)
(C 0)
(IP-SUB (ADVP *T*-2)
(CODE {she_ought_to_be})
(VAN yblamed)))))
WH Adverbial clauses (CP-ADV)
Some AS adverbial clauses contain a gap, which may be either adverbial or
nominal. When adverbial, AS can be paraphrased as in the same way
that. When nominal, AS can be paraphrased as WHICH, and the trace is a
nominal argument.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBP votes)
(PP (P in)
(NP (Q every) (N election)))
(PP (P as)
(CP-ADV (WADVP-1 0)
(C 0)
(IP-SUB (ADVP *T*-1)
(NP-SBJ (D a) (ADJ good) (N citizen))
(MD should)
(VB *)))))
(IP-MAT (PP-PRN (P As)
(CP-ADV (WNP-1 0)
(C 0)
(IP-SUB (NP-OB1 *T*-1)
(NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(ADVP-TMP (ADV always))
(VBP says))))
(NP-SBJ (N tomorrow))
(BEP is)
(NP-OB1 (D+OTHER another) (N day)))
Tough-movement complements (CP-TMC)
Tough movement complements of adjectives ( Mary is easy to please)
have the same structure as infinitival relatives. The relation between the
subject of the matrix clause and the object of the infinitive (which is
predictable) is not indicated.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(BEP is)
(ADJP (ADJ easy)
(CP-TMC (WNP-1 0)
(IP-INF (NP-OB1 *T*-1)
(TO to)
(VB please)))))
It-clefts (CP-CLF)
It-clefts have the same internal structure as relative clauses (see Section
RELATIVE CLAUSES).
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO It))
(BEP is)
(NP-OB1 (NPR Mary))
(CP-CLF (WNP-1 (WPRO who))
(C 0)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VBP knows)
(NP-OB1 (D the) (N answer)))))
-WH subordinate clauses
In the remaining types of CP subordinate clauses the complementizer
position is always indicated (whether over or empty) but the specCP
position doesn't contain a wh-element.
yes/no questions CP-QUE
that complements CP-THT
adverbial clauses CP-ADV
degree clauses CP-DEG
Yes/no questions (CP-QUE)
YES/NO questions, like other verb-first constructions (see Sections WH-QUESTION and ADVERBIAL
CLAUSES) where the verb has moved to C, are represented as having
no C position and the verb first in IP (after any traces).
(CP-QUE (IP-SUB (BEP Are)
(NP-SBJ (PRO you))
(VAG coming))
(. ?))
(CP-QUE (IP-SUB (DOD Did)
(NP-SBJ (PRO you))
(VB want)
(IP-INF (TO to)
(VB go)))
(. ?))
That clauses (CP-THT)
That clauses occur as complements to verbs, adjectives and nouns.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD said)
(CP-THT (C that)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO she))
(VBD liked)
(NP-OB1 (NS cats)))))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD said)
(CP-THT (C 0)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO she))
(VBD liked)
(NP-OB1 (NS cats)))))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (D the) (N fact)
(CP-THT (C that)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (D the) (N world))
(BEP is)
(ADJP (ADJ round)))))
(HVD had)
(NEG not)
(VBN escaped)
(NP-OB1 (NPR Mary)))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(BEP is)
(ADJP (ADJ happy)
(CP-THT (C that)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (NPR Jane))
(VBD won)
(NP-OB1 (D the) (N prize))))))
Adverbial clauses (CP-ADV)
In the PPCME2, most subordinators (subordinate conjunctions) are treated as
prepositions, and thus many adverbial clauses are represented as PPs in
which the preposition takes a clausal complement. While in Modern English
the complementizer position in such clauses is generally empty, it was
often filled in Middle English ( After that Mary arrived, we watched
the movie).
(IP-IMP (PP (P If)
(CP-ADV (C 0)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO you))
(VBP want)
(NP-OB1 (D a) (N ride)))))
(VBI ask)
(NP-OB2 (NPR Mary)))
(IP-MAT (PP (P When)
(CP-ADV (C 0)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (D the) (N party))
(BED was)
(RP over))))
(NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD went)
(NP-DIR (N home)))
Bare adverbial clauses, i.e. headed by THAT, are common in Middle English
and generally indicate purpose or result.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(VBD invested)
(ADVP (ADV wisely))
(CP-ADV (C that) <--- i.e., "so that"
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO she))
(MD might)
(VB retire)
(PP (P in)
(NP (N comfort)))
(NP-TMP (ONE one) (N day)))))
Verb-first conditionals are given the same structure as other
constructions in which the verb is in C (see Sections WH-QUESTIONS and YES/NO QUESTIONS); i.e., the
complementizer position is not represented and the verb is first in
IP.
(IP-MAT (CP-ADV (IP-SUB (HVD had)
(NP-SBJ (PRO she))
(FP but)
(VBN known)))
(NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(MD would)
(ADVP-TMP (ADV never))
(HVP have)
(VBN trusted)
(NP-OB1 (NPR Jane)))
Degree clauses (CP-DEG)
Degree clauses are complements of SUCH and phrases containing degree words,
usually SO. Degree clauses are generally extraposed if they are not
underlyingly sentence final.
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(BEP is)
(ADJP (ADVR so) (ADJ friendly)
(CP-DEG (C that)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO she))
(ADVP-TMP (ADV always)
(VBP stops)
(IP-INF (TO to)
(VB chat)))))))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(BEP is)
(NP-OB1 (ADJP (SUCH such)
(CP-DEG *ICH*-1))
(D a) (ADJ good) (N player)
(CP-DEG-1 (C that)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO she))
(ADVP-TMP (ADV always))
(VBP wins)))))
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Mary))
(ADVP (ADVR so)
(CP-DEG *ICH*-1))
(VBD wanted)
(IP-INF (TO to)
(VB pass)
(NP-OB1 (D the) (N exam)))
(CP-DEG-1 (C that)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO she))
(VBD studied)
(NP-TMP (Q every) (N night)))))